In the autumn of 2009, when Ethan Peterson ’13 arrived at MIT as an undergraduate, he already had some ideas about possible career options. He had always liked building things, even as a child, so he imagined his future work would involve engineering of some sort. He also liked physics.

And he had recently become intent on reducing our dependence on fossil fuels and simultaneously curbing greenhouse gas emissions, which made him consider studying solar and wind energy, among other renewable sources.

Things crystallised for him in the spring semester of 2010, when he took an introductory course on nuclear fusion, taught by Anne White, during which he discovered that when a deuterium nucleus and a tritium nucleus combine to produce a helium nucleus, an energetic (14 mega electron volt) neutron – travelling at one-sixth the speed of light – is released.

Moreover, 10²⁰ (100 billion billion) of these neutrons would be produced every second that a 500-megawatt fusion power plant operates. “It was eye-opening for me to learn just how energy-dense the fusion process is,” says Peterson, who became the Class of 1956 Career Development Professor of nuclear science and engineering in July 2024.

'Both interesting and beautiful'

“I was struck by the richness and interdisciplinary nature of the fusion field. This was an engineering discipline where I could apply physics to solve a real-world problem in a way that was both interesting and beautiful.”

He soon became a physics and nuclear engineering double major, and by the time he graduated from MIT in 2013, the US Department of Energy (DoE) had already decided to cut funding for MIT’s Alcator C-Mod fusion project. 

In view of that facility’s impending closure, Peterson opted to pursue graduate studies at the University of Wisconsin. There, he acquired a basic science background in plasma physics, which is central not only to nuclear fusion but also to astrophysical phenomena such as the solar wind.

When Peterson received his PhD from Wisconsin in 2019, nuclear fusion had rebounded at MIT with the launch, a year earlier, of the SPARC project – a collaborative effort being carried out with the newly founded MIT spinout Commonwealth Fusion Systems. He returned to his alma mater as a postdoc and then a research scientist in the Plasma Science and Fusion Center, taking his time, at first, to figure out how to best make his mark in the field.

Minding your neutrons

Around that time, Peterson was participating in a community planning process, sponsored by the DoE, that focused on critical gaps that needed to be closed for a successful fusion programme.

In the course of these discussions, he came to realise that inadequate attention had been paid to the handling of neutrons, which carry 80% of the energy coming out of a fusion reaction – energy that needs to be harnessed for electrical generation.

However, these neutrons are so energetic that they can penetrate through many tens of centimetres of material, potentially undermining the structural integrity of components and damaging vital equipment such as superconducting magnets. Shielding is also essential for protecting humans from harmful radiation.

One goal, Peterson says, is to minimise the number of neutrons that escape and, in so doing, to reduce the amount of lost energy. A complementary objective, he adds, “is to get neutrons to deposit heat where you want them to and to stop them from depositing heat where you don’t want them to”.

These considerations, in turn, can have a profound influence on fusion reactor design. This branch of nuclear engineering, called neutronics – which analyses where neutrons are created and where they end up going – has become Peterson’s speciality.

It was never a high-profile area of research in the fusion community – as plasma physics, for example, has always garnered more of the spotlight and more of the funding. That is exactly why Peterson has stepped up. “The impacts of neutrons on fusion reactor design haven’t been a high priority for a long time,” he says.

“I felt that some initiative needed to be taken,” and that prompted him to make the switch from plasma physics to neutronics. It has been his principal focus ever since – as a postdoc, a research scientist, and now as a faculty member.

A code to design by

The best way to get a neutron to transfer its energy is to make it collide with a light atom. Lithium, with an atomic number of three, or lithium-containing materials are normally good choices – and necessary for producing tritium fuel.

The placement of lithium 'blankets', which are intended to absorb energy from neutrons and produce tritium, “is a critical part of the design of fusion reactors”, says Peterson. High-density materials, such as lead and tungsten, can be used, conversely, to block the passage of neutrons and other types of radiation.

“You might want to layer these high- and low-density materials in a complicated way that isn’t immediately intuitive,” he adds. Determining which materials to put where – and of what thickness and mass – amounts to a tricky optimisation problem, which will affect the size, cost, and efficiency of a fusion power plant.

To that end, Peterson has developed modelling tools that can make analyses of these sorts easier and faster, thereby facilitating the design process. “This has traditionally been the step that takes the longest time and causes the biggest holdups,” he says.

The models and algorithms that he and his colleagues are devising are general enough, moreover, to be compatible with a diverse range of fusion power plant concepts, including those that use magnets or lasers to confine the plasma.

Now that he has become a professor, Peterson is in a position to introduce more people to nuclear engineering, and to neutronics in particular. “I love teaching and mentoring students, sharing the things I’m excited about,” he says.

“I was inspired by all the professors I had in physics and nuclear engineering at MIT, and I hope to give back to the community in the same way.”

He also believes that if you are going to work on fusion, there is no better place to be than MIT, “where the facilities are second-to-none. People here are extremely innovative and passionate.

"And the sheer number of people who excel in their fields is staggering”. Great ideas can sometimes be sparked by off-the-cuff conversations in the hallway – something that happens more frequently than you expect, says Peterson. “All of these things taken together makes MIT a very special place.”